What Are the Most Explosive Events to Occur on the Sun?

Natural phenomena within the Sun'southward atmosphere

Solar phenomena are the natural phenomena occurring within the outer atmosphere of the Sun. These phenomena have many forms, including solar air current, radio moving ridge flux, solar flares, coronal mass ejections,^[1] coronal heating and sunspots.

These phenomena are obviously generated by a helical dynamo nearly the middle of the Sunday's mass that generates potent magnetic fields and a cluttered dynamo near the surface that generates smaller magnetic field fluctuations.^[2]

The total sum of all solar fluctuations is referred to as solar variation. The collective effect of all solar variations within the Dominicus'southward gravitational field is referred to as infinite weather condition. A major conditions component is the solar current of air, a stream of plasma released from the Sun'due south upper atmosphere. It is responsible for the aurora, natural lite displays in the sky in the Chill and Antarctic. Space weather disturbances can cause solar storms on Earth, disrupting communications, likewise as geomagnetic storms in Earth's magnetosphere and sudden ionospheric disturbances in the ionosphere. Variations in solar intensity too bear on Earth'south climate. These variations can explain events such as water ice ages and the Bang-up Oxygenation Event, while the Sun's time to come expansion into a carmine giant will likely terminate life on Earth.

Solar activity and related events have been recorded since the 8th century BCE. Babylonians inscribed and possibly predicted solar eclipses, while the earliest extant report of sunspots dates back to the Chinese Volume of Changes, c.   800 BCE.^[3] The first extant description of the solar corona was in 968, while the primeval sunspot drawing was in 1128 and a solar prominence was described in 1185 in the Russian Chronicle of Novgorod. The invention of the telescope allowed major advances in understanding, allowing the first detailed observations in the 1600s. Solar spectroscopy began in the 1800s, from which properties of the solar atmosphere could exist adamant, while the creation of daguerreotypy led to the first solar photographs on 2 April 1845. Photography assisted in the study of solar prominences, granulation and spectroscopy. Early in the 20th century, interest in astrophysics surged in America. A number of new observatories were built with solar telescopes around the globe. The 1931 invention of the coronagraph immune the corona to be studied in total daylight.

Lord's day [edit]

Main article: Dominicus

The Sun is a star located at the center of the Solar System. Information technology is almost perfectly spherical and consists of hot plasma and magnetic fields.^{[4] [5]} It has a bore of about i,392,684 kilometres (865,374 mi),^[6] around 109 times that of Earth, and its mass (ane.989×10 ³⁰ kilograms, approximately 330,000 times that of Earth) accounts for some 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System.^[7] Chemically, about three quarters of the Sunday's mass consists of hydrogen, while the rest is mostly helium. The remaining 1.69% (equal to five,600 times the mass of Earth) consists of heavier elements, including oxygen, carbon, neon and atomic number 26.^[8]

The Sun formed about iv.567 billion^{[a] [nine]} years ago from the gravitational collapse of a region inside a large molecular deject. Nigh of the affair gathered in the center, while the remainder flattened into an orbiting disk that became the residual of the Solar System. The central mass became increasingly hot and dumbo, eventually initiating thermonuclear fusion in its core.

The Sun is a G-type primary-sequence star (G2V) based on spectral class and it is informally designated as a yellow dwarf because its visible radiation is virtually intense in the yellow-green portion of the spectrum. Information technology is actually white, merely from the Earth's surface it appears yellow considering of atmospheric handful of blueish light.^[ten] In the spectral class label, G2 indicates its surface temperature, of approximately 5778 K (5,505 °C (ix,941 °F)) and V indicates that the Dominicus, similar most stars, is a main-sequence star, and thus generates its free energy via fusing hydrogen into helium. In its core, the Lord's day fuses about 620 million metric tons of hydrogen each 2d.^{[11] [12]}

The Earth's mean distance from the Dominicus is approximately 1 astronomical unit (about 150,000,000 km; 93,000,000 mi), though the distance varies every bit the Earth moves from perihelion in January to aphelion in July.^[thirteen] At this boilerplate distance, light travels from the Dominicus to Earth in near 8 minutes, 19 seconds. The energy of this sunlight supports almost all life^[b] on Earth by photosynthesis,^[14] and drives Earth's climate and weather.^[fifteen] As recently equally the 19th century scientists had picayune knowledge of the Sun's physical limerick and source of energy. This agreement is however developing; a number of present-twenty-four hours anomalies in the Dominicus's behavior remain unexplained.

Solar bicycle [edit]

Prediction of sunspot wheel

Many solar phenomena modify periodically over an boilerplate interval of about xi years. This solar cycle affects solar irradiation and influences infinite conditions, terrestrial weather and climate.

The solar cycle also modulates the flux of short-wavelength solar radiation, from ultraviolet to X-ray and influences the frequency of solar flares, coronal mass ejections and other solar eruptive phenomena.

Types [edit]

Coronal mass ejection (CME) [edit]

A coronal mass ejection (CME) is a massive burst of solar wind and magnetic fields rising above the solar corona.^[16] Virtually solar maxima, the Sun produces about three CMEs every twenty-four hours, whereas solar minima feature nigh one every five days.^[17] CMEs, along with solar flares of other origin, can disrupt radio transmissions and harm satellites and electrical manual line facilities, resulting in potentially massive and long-lasting power outages.^{[18] [19]}

Coronal mass ejections often announced with other forms of solar activity, most notably solar flares, merely no causal relationship has been established. Virtually weak flares do not have CMEs; most powerful ones practice. Almost ejections originate from active regions on the Sun's surface, such as sunspot groupings associated with frequent flares. Other forms of solar action frequently associated with coronal mass ejections are eruptive prominences, coronal dimming, coronal waves and Moreton waves, also called solar seismic sea wave.

Magnetic reconnection is responsible for CME and solar flares. Magnetic reconnection is the name given to the rearrangement of magnetic field lines when 2 oppositely directed magnetic fields are brought together. This rearrangement is accompanied with a sudden release of free energy stored in the original oppositely directed fields.^{[20] [21]}

When a CME impacts the Earth's magnetosphere, it temporarily deforms the Earth's magnetic field, irresolute the direction of compass needles and inducing large electrical basis currents in World itself; this is called a geomagnetic tempest and information technology is a global phenomenon. CME impacts tin induce magnetic reconnection in Earth's magnetotail (the midnight side of the magnetosphere); this launches protons and electrons downward toward Earth's atmosphere, where they form the aurora.

Diameter [edit]

Information mostly from the Michelson Doppler Imager instrument on SOHO, testify changes in solar diameter to be nigh 0.001%, much less than the upshot of magnetic activeness changes.^[22]

Flares [edit]

A solar flare is a sudden wink of brightness observed over the Sun's surface or the solar limb, which is interpreted equally an free energy release of up to half dozen × 10²⁵ joules (about a 6th of the total Sun's free energy output each 2nd or 160 billion megatons of TNT equivalent, over 25,000 times more energy than released from the bear upon of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 with Jupiter). It may be followed by a coronal mass ejection.^[23] The flare ejects clouds of electrons, ions and atoms through the corona into space. These clouds typically reach Earth a solar day or two afterwards the upshot.^[24] Like phenomena in other stars are known as stellar flares.

Solar flares strongly influence space weather about the Earth. They tin can produce streams of highly energetic particles in the solar wind, known equally a solar proton event. These particles can impact the Earth'southward magnetosphere in the form of a geomagnetic storm and nowadays radiation hazards to spacecraft and astronauts.

• A solar flare

• 

  On Baronial 31, 2012 a long prominence/filament of solar material that had been hovering in the Sun'southward atmosphere, the corona, erupted out into space at 4:36 p.yard. EDT.

• 

  Diagram of the magnetic-field structure of a solar flare and its origin, inferred to result from the deformation of such a magnetic structure linking the solar interior with the solar temper up through the corona.

• 

  A complete second-Image taken by STEREO (High Resolution)

Irradiance [edit]

Irradiance is the power per unit area produced by the Sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation. Irradiance may be measured in infinite or at the Globe's surface afterward atmospheric absorption and scattering. Total solar irradiance (TSI) is a measure out of the solar radiative power per unit of measurement area normal to the rays incident on the Earth'due south upper atmosphere. The solar constant is a conventional measure out of mean TSI at a distance of 1 Astronomical Unit (AU).

Insolation is a function of altitude from the Sun, the solar wheel, and cross-cycle changes.^[25] Irradiance on Earth is nearly intense at points direct facing (normal to) the Sun.

Solar Proton event (SPE) [edit]

Solar particles interact with Globe's magnetosphere. Sizes not to scale.

A solar proton event (SPE), or "proton storm", occurs when particles (mostly protons) emitted by the Dominicus get accelerated either shut to the Sunday during a flare or in interplanetary infinite by CME shocks. The events tin include other nuclei such equally helium ions and HZE ions. These particles cause multiple effects. They can penetrate the Earth'south magnetic field and cause ionization in the ionosphere. The effect is like to auroral events, except that protons rather than electrons are involved. Energetic protons are a meaning radiation adventure to spacecraft and astronauts.^[26] Energetic protons can achieve Earth within 30 minutes of a major flare's peak.

Prominences and filaments [edit]

A video clip of an erupting solar prominence, a CME.

A prominence is a large, brilliant, gaseous feature extending outward from the Lord's day'southward surface, ofttimes in the shape of a loop. Prominences are anchored to the Sun's surface in the photosphere and extend outwards into the corona. While the corona consists of loftier temperature plasma, which does not emit much visible low-cal, prominences contain much cooler plasma, similar in composition to that of the chromosphere.

Prominence plasma is typically a hundred times libation and denser than coronal plasma. A prominence forms over timescales of almost an earthly solar day and may persist for weeks or months. Some prominences break autonomously and class CMEs.

A typical prominence extends over many thousands of kilometers; the largest on record was estimated at over 800,000 kilometres (500,000 mi) long ^[27] – roughly the solar radius.

When a prominence is viewed against the Dominicus instead of space, it appears darker than the background. This germination is called a solar filament.^[27] It is possible for a projection to be both a filament and a prominence. Some prominences are so powerful that they eject matter at speeds ranging from 600 km/s to more than 1000 km/due south. Other prominences form huge loops or arching columns of glowing gases over sunspots that can reach heights of hundreds of thousands of kilometers.^[28]

Sunspots [edit]

Sunspots are relatively dark areas on the Sun'due south radiating 'surface' (photosphere) where intense magnetic activity inhibits convection and cools the Photosphere. Faculae are slightly brighter areas that course around sunspot groups as the flow of energy to the photosphere is re-established and both the normal menstruation and the sunspot-blocked energy elevate the radiating 'surface' temperature. Scientists began speculating on possible relationships between sunspots and solar luminosity in the 17th century.^{[29] [30]} Luminosity decreases acquired past sunspots (generally < - 0.3%) are correlated with increases (generally < + 0.05%) caused both past faculae that are associated with active regions likewise as the magnetically active 'brilliant network'.^[31]

The cyberspace result during periods of enhanced solar magnetic activity is increased radiant solar output because faculae are larger and persist longer than sunspots. Conversely, periods of lower solar magnetic activity and fewer sunspots (such as the Maunder Minimum) may correlate with times of lower irradiance.^[32]

Sunspot action has been measured using the Wolf number for almost 300 years. This index (also known as the Zürich number) uses both the number of sunspots and the number of sunspot groups to compensate for measurement variations. A 2003 study found that sunspots had been more than frequent since the 1940s than in the previous 1150 years.^[33]

Sunspots usually appear as pairs with opposite magnetic polarity.^[34] Detailed observations reveal patterns, in yearly minima and maxima and in relative location. As each cycle gain, the latitude of spots declines, from 30–45° to around 7° afterward the solar maximum. This latitudinal change follows Spörer'due south law.

For a sunspot to be visible to the human eye it must be about l,000 km in bore, covering 2,000,000,000 square kilometres (770,000,000 sq mi) or 700 millionths of the visible surface area. Over recent cycles, approximately 100 sunspots or compact sunspot groups are visible from Globe.^{[c] [35]}

Sunspots expand and contract as they move almost and can travel at a few hundred meters per second when they starting time announced.

• 

  Spörer's law noted that at the offset of an 11-year sunspot bike, the spots appeared first at higher latitudes and later in progressively lower latitudes.

• 

  A report in the Daily Mail characterized sunspot 1302 as a "behemoth" unleashing huge solar flares.

• 

  Detail of the Sun's surface, analog photography with a 4" Refractor, xanthous drinking glass filter and foil filter ND 4, Observatory Großhadern, Munich

• 

  Detailed view of sunspot, 13 December 2006

Air current [edit]

Schematic of Earth's magnetosphere. The solar current of air flows from left to right.

Simulation of Earth'south magnetic field in interaction with (solar) interplanetary magnetic field that illustrates the dynamical changes of the global magnetic field in the course of a disturbance: a temporary compression of the magnetosphere by enhanced menses of the solar wind is followed by a tailward stretching of the field lines.

The solar wind is a stream of plasma released from the Sun's upper atmosphere. It consists of mostly electrons and protons with energies usually betwixt one.five and 10 keV. The stream of particles varies in density, temperature and speed over time and over solar longitude. These particles tin escape the Sun's gravity because of their loftier energy.

The solar wind is divided into the boring solar current of air and the fast solar wind. The dull solar wind has a velocity of about 400 kilometres per second (250 mi/southward), a temperature of 2×x ⁵  K and a composition that is a shut friction match to the corona. The fast solar current of air has a typical velocity of 750 km/south, a temperature of 8×ten ⁵  K and nearly matches the photosphere's.^{[36] [37]} The slow solar wind is twice as dense and more variable in intensity than the fast solar wind. The slow wind has a more complex structure, with turbulent regions and large-calibration organization.^{[38] [39]}

Both the fast and slow solar wind tin be interrupted by large, fast-moving bursts of plasma called interplanetary CMEs, or ICMEs. They crusade shock waves in the thin plasma of the heliosphere, generating electromagnetic waves and accelerating particles (mostly protons and electrons) to grade showers of ionizing radiations that precede the CME.

Effects [edit]

Infinite weather [edit]

Space weather is the environmental condition within the Solar System, including the solar wind. It is studied peculiarly surrounding the World, including atmospheric condition from the magnetosphere to the ionosphere and thermosphere. Space weather is distinct from terrestrial weather of the troposphere and stratosphere. The term was non used until the 1990s. Prior to that time, such phenomena were considered to be office of physics or aeronomy.

Solar storms [edit]

Solar storms are caused past disturbances on the Sun, most oft coronal clouds associated with solar flare CMEs emanating from active sunspot regions, or less often from coronal holes. The Sun tin produce intense geomagnetic and proton storms capable of causing ability outages, disruption or communications blackouts (including GPS systems) and temporary/permanent disabling of satellites and other spaceborne technology. Solar storms may be hazardous to high-latitude, high-altitude aviation and to homo spaceflight.^[40] Geomagnetic storms cause aurorae.^[41]

The almost meaning known solar storm occurred in September 1859 and is known every bit the Carrington consequence.^{[42] [43]}

Aurora [edit]

An aurora is a natural light display in the heaven, specially in the high latitude (Arctic and Antarctic) regions, in the form of a big circle around the pole. Information technology is caused by the collision of solar wind and charged magnetospheric particles with the loftier altitude atmosphere (thermosphere).

Most auroras occur in a band known as the auroral zone,^{[44] [45]} which is typically 3° to vi° wide in breadth and observed at 10° to 20° from the geomagnetic poles at all longitudes, merely often most vividly effectually the jump and autumn equinoxes. The charged particles and solar wind are directed into the atmosphere by the Earth's magnetosphere. A geomagnetic tempest expands the auroral zone to lower latitudes.

Auroras are associated with the solar wind. The Earth's magnetic field traps its particles, many of which travel toward the poles where they are accelerated toward Earth. Collisions between these ions and the atmosphere release energy in the form of auroras appearing in large circles around the poles. Auroras are more than frequent and brighter during the solar cycle's intense phase when CMEs increase the intensity of the solar air current.^[46]

Geomagnetic storm [edit]

A geomagnetic storm is a temporary disturbance of the Earth'due south magnetosphere caused by a solar wind stupor wave and/or deject of magnetic field that interacts with the Earth's magnetic field. The increase in solar wind pressure compresses the magnetosphere and the solar wind's magnetic field interacts with the Earth's magnetic field to transfer increased energy into the magnetosphere. Both interactions increase plasma move through the magnetosphere (driven past increased electric fields) and increment the electrical current in the magnetosphere and ionosphere.^[47]

The disturbance in the interplanetary medium that drives a storm may be due to a CME or a high speed stream (co-rotating interaction region or CIR)^[48] of the solar air current originating from a region of weak magnetic field on the solar surface. The frequency of geomagnetic storms increases and decreases with the sunspot cycle. CME driven storms are more common during the solar maximum of the solar cycle, while CIR-driven storms are more common during the solar minimum.

Several infinite conditions phenomena are associated with geomagnetic storms. These include Solar Energetic Particle (SEP) events, geomagnetically induced currents (GIC), ionospheric disturbances that crusade radio and radar scintillation, disruption of compass navigation and auroral displays at much lower latitudes than normal. A 1989 geomagnetic storm energized ground induced currents that disrupted electric ability distribution throughout most of the province of Quebec^[49] and caused aurorae as far due south as Texas.^[50]

Sudden ionospheric disturbance [edit]

A sudden ionospheric disturbance (SID) is an abnormally high ionization/plasma density in the D region of the ionosphere caused by a solar flare. The SID results in a sudden increase in radio-wave absorption that is almost severe in the upper medium frequency (MF) and lower loftier frequency (HF) ranges, and every bit a result often interrupts or interferes with telecommunications systems.^[51]

Geomagnetically induced currents [edit]

Geomagnetically induced currents are a manifestation at ground level of infinite conditions, which affect the normal operation of long electrical usher systems. During space weather events, electric currents in the magnetosphere and ionosphere feel large variations, which manifest also in the Globe'south magnetic field. These variations induce currents (GIC) in earthly conductors. Electric manual grids and buried pipelines are mutual examples of such usher systems. GIC can cause problems such as increased corrosion of pipeline steel and damaged high-voltage power transformers.

Carbon-14 [edit]

Sunspot record (blue) with ^xivC (inverted).

The product of carbon-14 (radiocarbon: ¹⁴C) is related to solar activity. Carbon-14 is produced in the upper atmosphere when cosmic ray bombardment of atmospheric nitrogen (¹⁴N) induces the nitrogen to undergo β+ disuse, thus transforming into an unusual isotope of carbon with an atomic weight of 14 rather than the more common 12. Considering galactic cosmic rays are partially excluded from the Solar System past the outward sweep of magnetic fields in the solar wind, increased solar activity reduces ¹⁴C production.^[52]

Atmospheric ¹⁴C concentration is lower during solar maxima and higher during solar minima. By measuring the captured ¹⁴C in wood and counting tree rings, production of radiocarbon relative to contempo woods can exist measured and dated. A reconstruction of the past ten,000 years shows that the ¹⁴C production was much college during the mid-Holocene 7,000 years agone and decreased until 1,000 years agone. In add-on to variations in solar action, long term trends in carbon-14 production are influenced by changes in the World'southward geomagnetic field and by changes in carbon cycling inside the biosphere (particularly those associated with changes in the extent of vegetation between water ice ages).^{[ citation needed ]}

Climate [edit]

While solar activity has been a main driver of climate change over geologic time, its role in the warming that began in the twentieth century does non announced to have been significant.^[53]

Observation history [edit]

Solar activity and related events have been regularly recorded since the time of the Babylonians. Early records described solar eclipses, the corona and sunspots.

Shortly after the invention of telescopes, in the early on 1600s, astronomers began observing the Sun. Thomas Harriot was the first to detect sunspots, in 1610. Observers confirmed the less-frequent sunspots and aurorae during the Maunder minimum.^[54]

Solar spectrometry began in 1817.^[55] Rudolf Wolf gathered sunspot observations as far back every bit the 1755–1766 cycle. He established a relative sunspot number formulation (the Wolf or Zürich sunspot number) that became the standard measure out. Around 1852, Sabine, Wolf, Gautier and von Lamont independently establish a link between the solar bicycle and geomagnetic activity.^[55]

On 2 April 1845, Fizeau and Foucault first photographed the Sun. Photography assisted in the written report of solar prominences, granulation, spectroscopy and solar eclipses.^[55]

On 1 September 1859, Richard C. Carrington and separately R. Hodgson first observed a solar flare.^[55] Carrington and Gustav Spörer discovered that the Sun exhibits differential rotation, and that the outer layer must be fluid.^[55]

In 1907–08, George Ellery Hale uncovered the Sunday's magnetic bicycle and the magnetic nature of sunspots. Hale and his colleagues after deduced Hale's polarity laws that described its magnetic field.^[55]

Bernard Lyot's 1931 invention of the coronagraph immune the corona to exist studied in total daylight.^[55]

The Sun was, until the 1990s, the only star whose surface had been resolved.^[56] Other major achievements included understanding of:^[57]

• X-ray-emitting loops (east.grand., past Yohkoh)
• Corona and solar wind (e.yard., by SoHO)
• Variance of solar brightness with level of activity, and verification of this consequence in other solar-blazon stars (e.grand., by ACRIM)
• The intense fibril state of the magnetic fields at the visible surface of a star like the Sunday (e.g., by Hinode)
• The presence of magnetic fields of 0.5×ten⁵ to 1×10^v gauss at the base of the conductive zone, presumably in some fibril form, inferred from the dynamics of rising azimuthal flux bundles.
• Depression-level electron neutrino emission from the Sun's core.^[57]

In the afterwards twentieth century, satellites began observing the Sunday, providing many insights. For case, modulation of solar luminosity by magnetically active regions was confirmed by satellite measurements of total solar irradiance (TSI) by the ACRIM1 experiment on the Solar Maximum Mission (launched in 1980).^[31]

See also [edit]

• Attribution of recent climate change (section Solar activity)
• Climatic change (section Solar output)
• Global warming (section Solar activity)
• Listing of articles related to the Sun
• Outline of astronomy
• Radiative levitation
• Solar variation

Notes [edit]

1. ^ All numbers in this article are brusque calibration. One billion is 10⁹, or one,000,000,000.
2. ^ Hydrothermal vent communities alive so deep under the ocean that they have no access to sunlight. Bacteria instead use sulfur compounds equally an free energy source, via chemosynthesis.
3. ^ This is based on the hypothesis that the average human eye may have a resolution of 3.3×10⁻⁴ radians or 70 arc seconds, with a 1.5 millimetres (0.059 in) maximum pupil dilation in relatively vivid low-cal.^[35]

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Further reading [edit]

• Karl, Thomas R.; Melillo, Jerry Thousand.; Peterson, Thomas C. (2009). "Global Climate change Impacts in the United States". Cambridge Academy Press.
• Willson, Richard C.; H.Due south. Hudson (1991). "The Dominicus's luminosity over a complete solar bike". Nature. 351 (6321): 42–4. Bibcode:1991Natur.351...42W. doi:ten.1038/351042a0.
• Foukal, Peter; et al. (1977). "The effects of sunspots and faculae on the solar constant". Astrophysical Journal. 215: 952. Bibcode:1977ApJ...215..952F. doi:10.1086/155431.
• Dziembowski, W.A.; P.R. Goode; J. Schou (2001). "Does the sun compress with increasing magnetic activeness?". Astrophysical Journal. 553 (two): 897–904. arXiv:astro-ph/0101473. Bibcode:2001ApJ...553..897D. doi:10.1086/320976.
• Stetson, H.T. (1937). Sunspots and Their Effects. New York: McGraw Hill.
• Yaskell, Steven Haywood (31 December 2012). Grand Phases On The Sunday: The example for a mechanism responsible for extended solar minima and maxima. Trafford Publishing. ISBN978-one-4669-6300-9.
• Solar activeness Hugh Hudson Scholarpedia, 3(3):3967. doi:ten.4249/scholarpedia.3967

External links [edit]

• NOAA / NESDIS / NGDC (2002) Solar Variability Affecting Earth NOAA CD-ROM NGDC-05/01. This CD-ROM contains over 100 solar-terrestrial and related global data bases covering the flow through April 1990.
• Contempo Total Solar Irradiance data updated every Monday
• Latest Space Weather Data – from the Solar Influences Data Analysis Center (Belgium)
• Latest images from Large Bear Solar Observatory (California)
• The Very Latest SOHO Images – from the ESA/NASA Solar & Heliospheric Observatory
• Map of Solar Active Regions – from the Kislovodsk Mountain Astronomical Station

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_phenomena

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